Softpanorama (slightly skeptical) Open Source Software Educational Society

May the source be with you, but remember the KISS principle ;-) Softpanorama Search

Softpanorama C Webliography

Note: This material on this somewhat intersect with C++ page as I consider C++ to be mainly "a better C" and I am deeply skeptical about OO approach. Some materials that are missing in this page might probably be found  on the C++ page

C is often referred to as a ``high-level assembly language.''  That means that it is not optimal as the first programming language.  The ability to perform low-level operations that are needed for systems programming is actually a distinctive feature of the language. I believe that the language was a very important invention for its time.  The first widespread machine independent system programming language.   As Alex Stepanov aptly noted in his Dr. Dobb's Journal Interview

Let's consider now why C is a great language. It is commonly believed that C is a hack which was successful because Unix was written in it. I disagree. Over a long period of time computer architectures evolved, not because of some clever people figuring how to evolve architectures---as a matter of fact, clever people were pushing tagged architectures during that period of time---but because of the demands of different programmers to solve real problems. Computers that were able to deal just with numbers evolved into computers with byte-addressable memory, flat address spaces, and pointers. This was a natural evolution reflecting the growing set of problems that people were solving. C, reflecting the genius of Dennis Ritchie, provided a minimal model of the computer that had evolved over 30 years. C was not a quick hack. As computers evolved to handle all kinds of problems, C, being the minimal model of such a computer, became a very powerful language to solve all kinds of problems in different domains very effectively. This is the secret of C's portability: it is the best representation of an abstract computer that we have. Of course, the abstraction is done over the set of real computers, not some imaginary computational devices. Moreover, people could understand the machine model behind C. It is much easier for an average engineer to understand the machine model behind C than the machine model behind Ada or even Scheme. C succeeded because it was doing the right thing, not because of AT&T promoting it or Unix being written with it.

Right now it got it's second life as a lower level language for "dual language" programming (in combination with scripting languages). Especially easy to leant is TCL+C dual language programming techniques.  I strongly advice learn TCL to any serious C programmer. Otherwise you will deprive yourself of a lot of important concepts and method of program development and probably will never be as productive as you can be.

C is a simple and elegant language, that introduced a lot of new ideas into language disign.  As Alex Stepanov in his Dr. Dobb's Journal Interview aptly put it: 

Let's consider now why C is a great language. It is commonly believed that C is a hack which was successful because Unix was written in it. I disagree. Over a long period of time computer architectures evolved, not because of some clever people figuring how to evolve architectures---as a matter of fact, clever people were pushing tagged architectures during that period of time---but because of the demands of different programmers to solve real problems. Computers that were able to deal just with numbers evolved into computers with byte-addressable memory, flat address spaces, and pointers. This was a natural evolution reflecting the growing set of problems that people were solving. C, reflecting the genius of Dennis Ritchie, provided a minimal model of the computer that had evolved over 30 years. C was not a quick hack. As computers evolved to handle all kinds of problems, C, being the minimal model of such a computer, became a very powerful language to solve all kinds of problems in different domains very effectively. This is the secret of C's portability: it is the best representation of an abstract computer that we have. Of course, the abstraction is done over the set of real computers, not some imaginary computational devices. Moreover, people could understand the machine model behind C. It is much easier for an average engineer to understand the machine model behind C than the machine model behind Ada or even Scheme. C succeeded because it was doing the right thing, not because of AT&T promoting it or Unix being written with it.

While borrowing features of PL/1 and BCPL it really elegantly integrated the concept of pointers into PL/1-style framework, provided practical set of high-level control structures and introduced shortcuts for increment/decrement style operations. As Donald Knuth remarked:

The way C handles pointers, for example, was a brilliant innovation; it solved a lot of problems that we had before in data structuring and made the programs look good afterwards. C isn't the perfect language, no language is, but I think it has a lot of virtues, and you can avoid the parts you don't like. I do like C as a language, especially because it blends in with the operating system (if you're using UNIX, for example).

All through my life, I've always used the programming language that blended best with the debugging system and operating system that I'm using. If I had a better debugger for language X, and if X went well with the operating system, I would be using that.

And believe me despite C++ existence (and partially due to it ;-) C will be around for a long time.  As Dennis Ritchie aptly put in one of his interviews:

But C is notoriously difficult to learn as a first language. Other things equal, the best way to learn C is to learn assembly language first or to learn two of them in parallel. This way you will probably find C constructs and especially pointer arithmetic quite  natural. If you have never programmed in assembly language, you may be frustrated by syntax and convoluted semantic of pointer arithmetic, treatment array names as pointers and so on. The main problem here is that the language was designed for people who already are able to program in assembler. This language was designed for writer of an operating system (Unix) and that is noticeable. In any case, you should understand that C was designed by accomplished system programmers for accomplished programmers and do not expect to much help as for finding errors neither from the compiler not from run time system (which is non-existent in pure C, and is not very helpful in C++). Both space and time efficiency and the ability to be close to  machine language constructions was necessary on 24K PDP 11 were it was first implemented.  See A development of the C language by Dennis Ritchie for more historical information.

You will be much better off if you already took course in some classic programming language like Basic, Fortran or Pascal(Turbo Pascal is just great as the first language with Modula-2 as logical continuation). This way you will be able to understand the language by comparing C-way of doing thing with Pascal-way of doing things that you already know.

The problem of learning C at high schools and universities is often complicated by teachers ;-). Many teachers forgot the problems they face when they study the language themselves and try to feed students as much material as possible in the very first course. IMHO the attempts to teach both C and C++ in one semester course are really pretty close to a crime. No it's worse than a crime -- this is a blunder ;-(. In any case after such course usually more than 50% of students hate programming in general and C in particular... Again I would like to stress that Pascal (in its Turbo Pascal incarnation) is a much better first language, but if you are unfortunate enough have C as your first language try to slow down and spend first seven weeks without pointers and structures -- the language will be much better understood if you do not rush to complex constructs and master a reasonable subset before jumping into complex stuff. Bad books can also complicate things considerable. Please read [alt.comp.lang.learn.c-c++] - FAQ for some useful recommendations on how to avoid typical pitfalls and problems in C.

Due to the presence of the preprocessor, diagnostic of lexical and syntax errors of C compilers is exceptionally bad and to avoid frustration you better write with minimum number of mistakes. That means having a good textbook and consulting it often. Moreover than means that you need to check manually program for typical mistakes (like missing semicolons, "=" instead of "==" in comparison, etc.).  You can actually save a lot of time this way.

For me list of "gotchas" -- errors that I already made and that took me considerable time to discover was  really helpful. You can use some of the lists available on the WEB as a starting point, but you will be much better off by creating your own from scratch. For example due to my previous many years experience with PL/1 I still sometimes use "=" instead of "==" in if statements and loops. This is an annoying error. See The Top 10 Ways to get screwed by the C programming language.

Also annoying and difficult to uncover were cases when I forgot to place & operator before the name of the variable and passed a value instead of address. C method of representing strings as array of characters that ends with null was pretty interesting in 70th, but lost much of its appeal on computers with several gigabyte of memory. The necessity of having null at the end of the string leads to subtle errors. That's why sometimes you will see recommendations like the one in the SDM C Style Guide:

4.7 Standard: Explicit +1 in String Length Declaration for \n

Character arrays used as strings, i.e., to hold ASCII text and terminated by a null character) should have a defined length that explicitly includes the "+ 1" character for the null string terminator.

   #define NAME_LEN 20 + 1
   char name[NAME_LEN];

Style is important too. One needs (no, actually one should) to use indent or other pretty-printer -- they are really important as they really simplify catching of errors by creating a pattern of indentation that is distinctive from what you might expect. At the same time one should not go overboard with style by enforcing upon oneself things that make no sense at all. Although I like the idea of using high level control construct whenever possible, I really hate structured programming pundits that teach to avoid GOTO, Breaks, continue, global variables no matter what -- really religious attitude. This "structured programming fundamentalists" are not as bad as (now mostly extinct) verification proponents a la Professor E.W. Dijkstra (who BTW originated "considered harmful" cliche in his influential Go To Statement Considered Harmful paper, published in Communications of the ACM, Vol. 11, No. 3, March 1968, pp. 147-148.), but still they try to make programming more difficult instead of trying making it easier. As   B. Kernighan   noted in his famous Why Pascal is Not My Favorite Programming Language:

There is no 'break' statement for exiting loops. This is consistent with the one entry-one exit philosophy espoused by proponents of structured programming, but it does lead to nasty circumlocutions or duplicated code, particularly when coupled with the inability to control the order in which logical expressions are evaluated. Consider this common situation, expressed in C or Ratfor:

     while (getnext(...)) {
             if (something)
                     break
             rest of loop
     }

With no 'break' statement, the first attempt in Pascal is

     done := false;
     while (not done) and (getnext(...)) do
             if something then
                     done := true
             else begin
                     rest of loop
             end

A scientific ground of this attempts to avoid certain construct is completely non-existent -- so, as Donald Knuth pointed out, feel free to use them with no guilt feeling if you try to implement a higher level control construct that is simply not availed in a given language. For example I like many recommendation SDM C Style Guide and just ignore half-dozen their "structured programming fundamentalism"-based recommendation like avoiding global variables, continue statements and GOTOs (see Donald Knuth's famous article about this issue for more details), but your mileage may vary.

Paradoxically, execution time errors are easier to find as most implementations have pretty decent debuggers with step by step execution. Borland is probably the best, but I was really impressed by a debugger that is built in Visual Studio 5.0. May be it was written by Borland people who were bought by Microsoft just before Borland itself was bought by Inprise ;-)

But deficiency of C are logical continuation of its strong points. And there are a lot of strong point in C -- its popularity proves that it is one of the best system programming languages around. People are flexible enough to adapt to the language and top programmers can produce up to a couple of thousand lines of code over a weekend.  GCC is the main Linux compiler and in order to use it one needs to learn C. So C is the key to open source software.  One deficiency of C that I hate is the fact that it does not support coroutines but there are libraries for GCC that can help.

It is silly to consider C to be a weaker programming language than C++. C++ is a decent language, but it is to certain extent an overkill and is a much more complex programming language than C. It also magnify problems that exist in C making debugging even more difficult. Contrary to OO advocates C++ in not always better than C. 

Actually you can in many cases one can do much better by using tandem of  TCL + C. TCL has a very simple structure. Each line starts with a command, such as dotask and a number of arguments. Each command is implemented as a C function. This function is responsible for handling all the arguments.  See my TCL page. C programmers can also benefit from learning Expect.  It is the greatest testing tool in existance. See also DejaGnu

Important:

• Turbo C version 2.01 is now free from Borland -- see link to Zip file here ! This is a great free compiler for beginners . It provides provided everything you needed, all of the tools, included in one environment. Turbo C 2.01 provided tight integration between the editor, compiler, linker, and debugger and can be used on any computer. 1M of memory is enough ;-) It can run on Linux in emulator. See also Borland Community Museum (free registration required).

• Intel compiler is probably the best as for quality of the generated code on the Intel platform.  It is available with a non-commercial license, meaning that anyone can download and use the full compiler for non-profit work. This is the best optimizing compiler you can get. The installation of Intel compiler is far faster and easier than the installation of Visual Studio .NET. The Intel compiler scores are approximately 2.5 times better then gcc 3.2.1 for the Monte-Carlo simulation, which is a considerably larger margin than for any of the other parts of the SciMark 2.0 benchmark. For other parts it is outperforming by only small margins of 10% or less. See Benchmarking Intel C++ against GNU gcc on Linux.

• High quality Borland C++ Compiler 5.5 is now free too and one can use it for writing programs in windows.

• For Dos 

Soon Watcom C/C++ and Fortran Compilers will be open source and will be much better deal than Borland. It's another top of the line C compiler -- I thing it's better than Microsoft.  See http://www.openwatcom.org

And the last but not least. Sometimes you will feel a block - you can not do it any more no matter what.  Here is several possible ways to overcome this condition:

1. Do some intense physical activity for several hours like running, diving, bicycling, fast swimming, etc. Then take a shower and try it again... This is usually very helpful.
2. Switch to another projects for at least a couple of days...
3. Go off on a tangent - sleep, read something that isn't specific to the source of the frustration, but still connected with programming, for example:
   1. Anything by Donald Knuth
   2. Back issues (the older the better ;-) of Byte, Dr. Dobbs', etc.
   3. Go to the library and browse programming books at random for several hours (This one is for those who like such an activity, like me ;-)

Good luck !

Dr. Nikolai Bezroukov

Old News ;-)

[Nov 19, 2009] nweb a tiny, safe Web server (static pages only)

Have you ever wanted to run a tiny, safe Web server without worrying about using a fully blown Web server that could cause security issues? Do you wonder how to write a program that accepts incoming messages with a network socket? Have you ever just wanted your own Web server to experiment and learn with?

Well, look no further -- nweb is what you need. This is a simple Web server that has only 200 lines of C source code. It runs as a regular user and can't run any server-side scripts or programs, so it can't open up any special privileges or security holes.

This article covers:

• What the nweb server program offers
• Summary of C functions features in the program
• Pseudo code to aid understanding of the flow of the code
• Network socket system calls used and other system calls
• How the client side operates
• C source code

nweb only transmits the following types of files to the browser :

• Static Web pages with extensions .html or .htm
• Graphical images such as .gif, .png, .jgp, or .jpeg
• Compressed binary files and archives such as .zip, .gz, and .tar

If your favorite static file type is not in this list, you can simply add it in the source code and recompile to allow it.

[Aug 3, 2009] Goanna 1.0.2

Goanna is an Eclipse plugin that does static analysis of C/C++ source code with model checking. It detects many instances of null pointer de-referencing, double free(), buffer overruns, uninitialized variables,... and other common programming mistakes...

[Dec 9, 2008] Slashdot What Programming Language For Linux Development

C first, then whatever you want

(Score:5, Insightful)

by darkwing_bmf (178021) <nelsonchandler@ya[ ].com ['hoo' in gap] on Saturday December 06, @07:47PM (#26016309)

C first. It is the lingua franca of the Unix world. Even if you don't use it for yourself, you have to understand it because so much is written in it. And if you don't understand it, no one will take you seriously. One of my first Linux installs was so I could teach myself C cheaply and I needed a free, as in beer, compiler.

Then after that, any language that you think might be interesting. Try multiple languages. I personally like Ada and there's a free GNAT Ada compiler for Linux.

[Nov 21, 2008] GCC hacks in the Linux kernel

The available C extensions can be classified in several ways. This article puts them in two broad categories: Functionality extensions bring new capabilities from GCC. Optimization extensions help you generate more efficient code. Functionality extensions Let's start by exploring some of the GCC tricks that extend the standard C language. Type discovery GCC permits the identification of a type through the reference to a variable. This kind of operation permits a form of what's commonly referred to as generic programming. Similar functionality can be found in many modern programming languages such as C++, Ada, and the Java™ language. Linux uses typeof to build type-dependent operations such as min and max. Listing 1 shows how you can use typeof to build a generic macro (from ./linux/include/linux/kernel.h). Listing 1. Using typeof to build a generic macro   #define min(x, y) ({ \ typeof(x) _min1 = (x); \ typeof(y) _min2 = (y); \ (void) (&_min1 == &_min2); \ _min1 < _min2 ? _min1 : _min2; })   Range extension GCC includes support for ranges, which can be put to use in many areas of the C language. One of those areas is on case statements within switch/case blocks. In complex conditional structures, you might typically depend on cascades of if statements to achieve the same result that is represented more elegantly in Listing 2 (from ./linux/drivers/scsi/sd.c). The use of switch/case also enables compiler optimization by using a jump table implementation. Listing 2. Using ranges within case statements   static int sd_major(int major_idx) { switch (major_idx) { case 0: return SCSI_DISK0_MAJOR; case 1 ... 7: return SCSI_DISK1_MAJOR + major_idx - 1; case 8 ... 15: return SCSI_DISK8_MAJOR + major_idx - 8; default: BUG(); return 0; /* shut up gcc */ } }   Ranges can also be used for initialization, as shown below (from ./linux/arch/cris/arch-v32/kernel/smp.c). In this example, an array is created of spinlock_t with a size of LOCK_COUNT. Each element of the array is initialized with the value SPIN_LOCK_UNLOCKED. /* Vector of locks used for various atomic operations */ spinlock_t cris_atomic_locks[] = { [0 ... LOCK_COUNT - 1] = SPIN_LOCK_UNLOCKED};   Ranges also support more complex initializations. For example, the following code specifies initial values for sub-ranges of an array. int widths[] = { [0 ... 9] = 1, [10 ... 99] = 2, [100] = 3 };   Zero-length arrays In standard C, at least one element of an array must be defined. This requirement tends to complicate code design. However, GCC supports the concept of zero-length arrays, which can be particularly useful for structure definitions. This concept is similar to the flexible array member in ISO C99, but it uses a different syntax. The following example declares an array with zero members at the end of a structure (from ./linux/drivers/ieee1394/raw1394-private.h). This allows the element in the structure to reference memory that follows and is contiguous with the structure instance. You may find this useful in cases where you need to have a variable number of array members. struct iso_block_store { atomic_t refcount; size_t data_size; quadlet_t data[0]; };   Determining call address In many instances, you may find it useful or necessary to determine the caller of a given function. GCC provides the built-in function __builtin_return_address for just this purpose. This function is commonly used for debugging, but it has many other uses within the kernel. As shown in the code below, __builtin_return_address takes an argument called level. The argument defines the level of the call stack for which you want to obtain the return address. For example, if you specify a level of 0, you are requesting the return address of the current function. If you specify a level of 1, you are requesting the return address of the calling function (and so on). void * __builtin_return_address( unsigned int level );   The local_bh_disable function in the following example (from ./linux/kernel/softirq.c) disables soft interrupts on the local processor to prevent softirqs, tasklets, and bottom halves from running on the current processor. The return address is captured using __builtin_return_address so that it can be used for later tracing purposes. void local_bh_disable(void) { __local_bh_disable((unsigned long)__builtin_return_address(0)); }   Constant detection GCC provides a built-in function that you can use to determine whether a value is a constant at compile-time. This is valuable information because you can construct expressions that can be optimized through constant folding. The __builtin_constant_p function is used to test for constants. The prototype for __builtin_constant_p is shown below. Note that __builtin_constant_p cannot verify all constants, because some are not easily proven by GCC. int __builtin_constant_p( exp )   Linux uses constant detection quite frequently. In the example shown in Listing 3 (from ./linux/include/linux/log2.h), constant detection is used to optimize the roundup_pow_of_two macro. If the expression can be verified as a constant, then a constant expression (which is available for optimization) is used. Otherwise, if the expression is not a constant, another macro function is called to round up the value to a power of two. Listing 3. Constant detection to optimize a macro function   #define roundup_pow_of_two(n) \ ( \ __builtin_constant_p(n) ? ( \ (n == 1) ? 1 : \ (1UL << (ilog2((n) - 1) + 1)) \ ) : \ __roundup_pow_of_two(n) \ )   Function attributes GCC provides a variety of function-level attributes that allow you to provide more data to the compiler to assist in the optimization process. This section describes some of these attributes that are associated with functionality. The next section describes attributes that affect optimization. As shown in Listing 4, the attributes are aliased by other symbolic definitions. You can use this as a guide to help read the source references that demonstrate the use of the attributes (as defined in ./linux/include/linux/compiler-gcc3.h). Listing 4. Function attribute definitions   # define __inline__ __inline__ __attribute__((always_inline)) # define __deprecated __attribute__((deprecated)) # define __attribute_used__ __attribute__((__used__)) # define __attribute_const__ __attribute__((__const__)) # define __must_check __attribute__((warn_unused_result))   The definitions shown in Listing 4 reflect some of the function attributes available in GCC. They are also some of the most useful function attributes in the Linux kernel. Following are explanations of how you can best use these attributes: always_inline tells GCC to inline the specified function regardless of whether optimization is enabled. deprecated tells you when a function has been deprecated and should no longer be used. If you attempt to use a deprecated function, you receive a warning. You can also apply this attribute to types and variables to encourage developers to wean themselves from those kernel assets. __used__ tells the compiler that this function is used regardless of whether GCC finds instances of calls to the function. This can be useful in cases where C functions are called from assembly. __const__ tells the compiler that a particular function has no state (that is, it uses the arguments passed in to generate a result to return). warn_unused_result forces the compiler to check that all callers check the result of the function. This ensures that callers are properly validating the function result so that they can handle the appropriate errors. Following are examples of these function being used in the Linux kernel. The deprecated example comes from the architecture non-specific kernel (./linux/kernel/resource.c), and the const example comes from the IA64 kernel source (./linux/arch/ia64/kernel/unwind.c). int __deprecated __check_region(struct resource *parent, unsigned long start, unsigned long n) static enum unw_register_index __attribute_const__ decode_abreg(unsigned char abreg, int memory)

Using Inline in Perl

The new Inline module for Perl allows you to write code in other languages (like C, Python, Tcl, or Java) and toss it into Perl scripts with wild abandon. Unlike previous ways of interfacing C code with Perl, Inline is very easy to use, and very much in keeping with the Perl philosophy. One extremely useful application of Inline is to write quick wrapper code around a C-language library to use it from Perl, thus turning Perl into (as far as I'm concerned) the best testing platform on the planet.

Perl has always been pathetically eclectic, but until now it hasn't been terribly easy to make it work with other languages or with libraries that weren't constructed specifically for it. You had to write interface code in the XS language (or get SWIG to do that for you), build an organized module, and generally keep track of a whole lot of details.

But now things have changed. The Inline module, written and actively (very actively) maintained by Brian Ingerson, provides facilities to bind other languages to Perl. In addition its sub-modules (Inline::C, Inline::Python, Inline::Tcl, Inline::Java, Inline::Foo, etc.) allow you to embed those languages directly in Perl files, where they will be found, built, and dynaloaded into Perl in a completely transparent manner. The user of your script will never know the difference, except that the first invocation of Inline-enabled code takes a little time to complete the compilation of the embedded code.

The world's simplest Inline::C program

Just to show you what I mean, let's look at the simplest possible Inline program; this uses an embedded C function, but you can do substantially the same thing with any other language that has Inline support.

Listing 1. Inline "Hello, world"
 

use Inline C => <<'END_C'; void greet() { printf("Hello, world! "); } END_C greet;

Naturally, what the code does is obvious. It defines a C-language function to do the expected action, and then it treats it as a Perl function thereafter. In other words, Inline does exactly what an extension module should do. The question that may be uppermost in your mind is, "How does it do that?". The answer is pretty much what you'd expect: it takes your C code, builds an XS file around it in the same way that a human extension module writer would, builds that module, then loads it. Subsequent invocations of the code will simply find the pre-built module already there, and load it directly.

You can even invoke Inline at runtime by using the Inline->bind function. I don't want to do anything more than dangle that tantalizing fact before you, because there's nothing special about it besides the point that you can do it if you want to.

[May 13, 2008] cstring 3.4.4 by Dr Proctor

About: cstring is a small and simple platform-independent C library for the definition and manipulation of expandable C-style strings. Strings are represented as instances of the cstring_t structure, and manipulated by the library's functions. Its features include selection of different allocator pools, mapping cstring_t instances as views onto existing memory areas, efficient work-ahead memory optimization, and minimal link requirements.

Changes: This release incorporates support for the Safe String library and for the Win64 platform.

[Apr 25, 2008] Interview with Donald Knuth by Donald E. Knuth,Andrew Binstock

---

Andrew Binstock and Donald Knuth converse on the success of open source, the problem with multicore architecture, the disappointing lack of interest in literate programming, the menace of reusable code, and that urban legend about winning a programming contest with a single compilation.

---

Andrew Binstock: You are one of the fathers of the open-source revolution, even if you aren’t widely heralded as such. You previously have stated that you released TeX as open source because of the problem of proprietary implementations at the time, and to invite corrections to the code—both of which are key drivers for open-source projects today. Have you been surprised by the success of open source since that time?

Donald Knuth: The success of open source code is perhaps the only thing in the computer field that hasn’t surprised me during the past several decades. But it still hasn’t reached its full potential; I believe that open-source programs will begin to be completely dominant as the economy moves more and more from products towards services, and as more and more volunteers arise to improve the code.

For example, open-source code can produce thousands of binaries, tuned perfectly to the configurations of individual users, whereas commercial software usually will exist in only a few versions. A generic binary executable file must include things like inefficient "sync" instructions that are totally inappropriate for many installations; such wastage goes away when the source code is highly configurable. This should be a huge win for open source.

Yet I think that a few programs, such as Adobe Photoshop, will always be superior to competitors like the Gimp—for some reason, I really don’t know why! I’m quite willing to pay good money for really good software, if I believe that it has been produced by the best programmers.

Remember, though, that my opinion on economic questions is highly suspect, since I’m just an educator and scientist. I understand almost nothing about the marketplace.

Andrew: A story states that you once entered a programming contest at Stanford (I believe) and you submitted the winning entry, which worked correctly after a single compilation. Is this story true? In that vein, today’s developers frequently build programs writing small code increments followed by immediate compilation and the creation and running of unit tests. What are your thoughts on this approach to software development?

Donald: The story you heard is typical of legends that are based on only a small kernel of truth. Here’s what actually happened: John McCarthy decided in 1971 to have a Memorial Day Programming Race. All of the contestants except me worked at his AI Lab up in the hills above Stanford, using the WAITS time-sharing system; I was down on the main campus, where the only computer available to me was a mainframe for which I had to punch cards and submit them for processing in batch mode. I used Wirth’s ALGOL W system (the predecessor of Pascal). My program didn’t work the first time, but fortunately I could use Ed Satterthwaite’s excellent offline debugging system for ALGOL W, so I needed only two runs. Meanwhile, the folks using WAITS couldn’t get enough machine cycles because their machine was so overloaded. (I think that the second-place finisher, using that "modern" approach, came in about an hour after I had submitted the winning entry with old-fangled methods.) It wasn’t a fair contest.

As to your real question, the idea of immediate compilation and "unit tests" appeals to me only rarely, when I’m feeling my way in a totally unknown environment and need feedback about what works and what doesn’t. Otherwise, lots of time is wasted on activities that I simply never need to perform or even think about. Nothing needs to be "mocked up."

Andrew: One of the emerging problems for developers, especially client-side developers, is changing their thinking to write programs in terms of threads. This concern, driven by the advent of inexpensive multicore PCs, surely will require that many algorithms be recast for multithreading, or at least to be thread-safe. So far, much of the work you’ve published for Volume 4 of The Art of Computer Programming (TAOCP) doesn’t seem to touch on this dimension. Do you expect to enter into problems of concurrency and parallel programming in upcoming work, especially since it would seem to be a natural fit with the combinatorial topics you’re currently working on?

Donald: The field of combinatorial algorithms is so vast that I’ll be lucky to pack its sequential aspects into three or four physical volumes, and I don’t think the sequential methods are ever going to be unimportant. Conversely, the half-life of parallel techniques is very short, because hardware changes rapidly and each new machine needs a somewhat different approach. So I decided long ago to stick to what I know best. Other people understand parallel machines much better than I do; programmers should listen to them, not me, for guidance on how to deal with simultaneity.

Andrew: Vendors of multicore processors have expressed frustration at the difficulty of moving developers to this model. As a former professor, what thoughts do you have on this transition and how to make it happen? Is it a question of proper tools, such as better native support for concurrency in languages, or of execution frameworks? Or are there other solutions?

Donald: I don’t want to duck your question entirely. I might as well flame a bit about my personal unhappiness with the current trend toward multicore architecture. To me, it looks more or less like the hardware designers have run out of ideas, and that they’re trying to pass the blame for the future demise of Moore’s Law to the software writers by giving us machines that work faster only on a few key benchmarks! I won’t be surprised at all if the whole multithreading idea turns out to be a flop, worse than the "Titanium" approach that was supposed to be so terrific—until it turned out that the wished-for compilers were basically impossible to write.

Let me put it this way: During the past 50 years, I’ve written well over a thousand programs, many of which have substantial size. I can’t think of even five of those programs that would have been enhanced noticeably by parallelism or multithreading. Surely, for example, multiple processors are no help to TeX.^[1]

How many programmers do you know who are enthusiastic about these promised machines of the future? I hear almost nothing but grief from software people, although the hardware folks in our department assure me that I’m wrong.

I know that important applications for parallelism exist—rendering graphics, breaking codes, scanning images, simulating physical and biological processes, etc. But all these applications require dedicated code and special-purpose techniques, which will need to be changed substantially every few years.

Even if I knew enough about such methods to write about them in TAOCP, my time would be largely wasted, because soon there would be little reason for anybody to read those parts. (Similarly, when I prepare the third edition of Volume 3 I plan to rip out much of the material about how to sort on magnetic tapes. That stuff was once one of the hottest topics in the whole software field, but now it largely wastes paper when the book is printed.)

The machine I use today has dual processors. I get to use them both only when I’m running two independent jobs at the same time; that’s nice, but it happens only a few minutes every week. If I had four processors, or eight, or more, I still wouldn’t be any better off, considering the kind of work I do—even though I’m using my computer almost every day during most of the day. So why should I be so happy about the future that hardware vendors promise? They think a magic bullet will come along to make multicores speed up my kind of work; I think it’s a pipe dream. (No—that’s the wrong metaphor! "Pipelines" actually work for me, but threads don’t. Maybe the word I want is "bubble.")

From the opposite point of view, I do grant that web browsing probably will get better with multicores. I’ve been talking about my technical work, however, not recreation. I also admit that I haven’t got many bright ideas about what I wish hardware designers would provide instead of multicores, now that they’ve begun to hit a wall with respect to sequential computation. (But my MMIX design contains several ideas that would substantially improve the current performance of the kinds of programs that concern me most—at the cost of incompatibility with legacy x86 programs.)

Andrew: One of the few projects of yours that hasn’t been embraced by a widespread community is literate programming. What are your thoughts about why literate programming didn’t catch on? And is there anything you’d have done differently in retrospect regarding literate programming?

Donald: Literate programming is a very personal thing. I think it’s terrific, but that might well be because I’m a very strange person. It has tens of thousands of fans, but not millions.

In my experience, software created with literate programming has turned out to be significantly better than software developed in more traditional ways. Yet ordinary software is usually okay—I’d give it a grade of C (or maybe C++), but not F; hence, the traditional methods stay with us. Since they’re understood by a vast community of programmers, most people have no big incentive to change, just as I’m not motivated to learn Esperanto even though it might be preferable to English and German and French and Russian (if everybody switched).

Jon Bentley probably hit the nail on the head when he once was asked why literate programming hasn’t taken the whole world by storm. He observed that a small percentage of the world’s population is good at programming, and a small percentage is good at writing; apparently I am asking everybody to be in both subsets.

Yet to me, literate programming is certainly the most important thing that came out of the TeX project. Not only has it enabled me to write and maintain programs faster and more reliably than ever before, and been one of my greatest sources of joy since the 1980s—it has actually been indispensable at times. Some of my major programs, such as the MMIX meta-simulator, could not have been written with any other methodology that I’ve ever heard of. The complexity was simply too daunting for my limited brain to handle; without literate programming, the whole enterprise would have flopped miserably.

If people do discover nice ways to use the newfangled multithreaded machines, I would expect the discovery to come from people who routinely use literate programming. Literate programming is what you need to rise above the ordinary level of achievement. But I don’t believe in forcing ideas on anybody. If literate programming isn’t your style, please forget it and do what you like. If nobody likes it but me, let it die.

On a positive note, I’ve been pleased to discover that the conventions of CWEB are already standard equipment within preinstalled software such as Makefiles, when I get off-the-shelf Linux these days.

Andrew: In Fascicle 1 of Volume 1, you reintroduced the MMIX computer, which is the 64-bit upgrade to the venerable MIX machine comp-sci students have come to know over many years. You previously described MMIX in great detail in MMIXware. I’ve read portions of both books, but can’t tell whether the Fascicle updates or changes anything that appeared in MMIXware, or whether it’s a pure synopsis. Could you clarify?

Donald: Volume 1 Fascicle 1 is a programmer’s introduction, which includes instructive exercises and such things. The MMIXware book is a detailed reference manual, somewhat terse and dry, plus a bunch of literate programs that describe prototype software for people to build upon. Both books define the same computer (once the errata to MMIXware are incorporated from my website). For most readers of TAOCP, the first fascicle contains everything about MMIX that they’ll ever need or want to know.

I should point out, however, that MMIX isn’t a single machine; it’s an architecture with almost unlimited varieties of implementations, depending on different choices of functional units, different pipeline configurations, different approaches to multiple-instruction-issue, different ways to do branch prediction, different cache sizes, different strategies for cache replacement, different bus speeds, etc. Some instructions and/or registers can be emulated with software on "cheaper" versions of the hardware. And so on. It’s a test bed, all simulatable with my meta-simulator, even though advanced versions would be impossible to build effectively until another five years go by (and then we could ask for even further advances just by advancing the meta-simulator specs another notch).

Suppose you want to know if five separate multiplier units and/or three-way instruction issuing would speed up a given MMIX program. Or maybe the instruction and/or data cache could be made larger or smaller or more associative. Just fire up the meta-simulator and see what happens.

Andrew: As I suspect you don’t use unit testing with MMIXAL, could you step me through how you go about making sure that your code works correctly under a wide variety of conditions and inputs? If you have a specific work routine around verification, could you describe it?

Donald: Most examples of machine language code in TAOCP appear in Volumes 1-3; by the time we get to Volume 4, such low-level detail is largely unnecessary and we can work safely at a higher level of abstraction. Thus, I’ve needed to write only a dozen or so MMIX programs while preparing the opening parts of Volume 4, and they’re all pretty much toy programs—nothing substantial. For little things like that, I just use informal verification methods, based on the theory that I’ve written up for the book, together with the MMIXAL assembler and MMIX simulator that are readily available on the Net (and described in full detail in the MMIXware book).

That simulator includes debugging features like the ones I found so useful in Ed Satterthwaite’s system for ALGOL W, mentioned earlier. I always feel quite confident after checking a program with those tools.

Andrew: Despite its formulation many years ago, TeX is still thriving, primarily as the foundation for LaTeX. While TeX has been effectively frozen at your request, are there features that you would want to change or add to it, if you had the time and bandwidth? If so, what are the major items you add/change?

Donald: I believe changes to TeX would cause much more harm than good. Other people who want other features are creating their own systems, and I’ve always encouraged further development—except that nobody should give their program the same name as mine. I want to take permanent responsibility for TeX and Metafont, and for all the nitty-gritty things that affect existing documents that rely on my work, such as the precise dimensions of characters in the Computer Modern fonts.

Andrew: One of the little-discussed aspects of software development is how to do design work on software in a completely new domain. You were faced with this issue when you undertook TeX: No prior art was available to you as source code, and it was a domain in which you weren’t an expert. How did you approach the design, and how long did it take before you were comfortable entering into the coding portion?

Donald: That’s another good question! I’ve discussed the answer in great detail in Chapter 10 of my book Literate Programming, together with Chapters 1 and 2 of my book Digital Typography. I think that anybody who is really interested in this topic will enjoy reading those chapters. (See also Digital Typography Chapters 24 and 25 for the complete first and second drafts of my initial design of TeX in 1977.)

Andrew: The books on TeX and the program itself show a clear concern for limiting memory usage—an important problem for systems of that era. Today, the concern for memory usage in programs has more to do with cache sizes. As someone who has designed a processor in software, the issues of cache-aware and cache-oblivious algorithms surely must have crossed your radar screen. Is the role of processor caches on algorithm design something that you expect to cover, even if indirectly, in your upcoming work?

Donald: I mentioned earlier that MMIX provides a test bed for many varieties of cache. And it’s a software-implemented machine, so we can perform experiments that will be repeatable even a hundred years from now. Certainly the next editions of Volumes 1-3 will discuss the behavior of various basic algorithms with respect to different cache parameters.

In Volume 4 so far, I count about a dozen references to cache memory and cache-friendly approaches (not to mention a "memo cache," which is a different but related idea in software).

Andrew: What set of tools do you use today for writing TAOCP? Do you use TeX? LaTeX? CWEB? Word processor? And what do you use for the coding?

Donald: My general working style is to write everything first with pencil and paper, sitting beside a big wastebasket. Then I use Emacs to enter the text into my machine, using the conventions of TeX. I use tex, dvips, and gv to see the results, which appear on my screen almost instantaneously these days. I check my math with Mathematica.

I program every algorithm that’s discussed (so that I can thoroughly understand it) using CWEB, which works splendidly with the GDB debugger. I make the illustrations with MetaPost (or, in rare cases, on a Mac with Adobe Photoshop or Illustrator). I have some homemade tools, like my own spell-checker for TeX and CWEB within Emacs. I designed my own bitmap font for use with Emacs, because I hate the way the ASCII apostrophe and the left open quote have morphed into independent symbols that no longer match each other visually. I have special Emacs modes to help me classify all the tens of thousands of papers and notes in my files, and special Emacs keyboard shortcuts that make bookwriting a little bit like playing an organ. I prefer rxvt to xterm for terminal input. Since last December, I’ve been using a file backup system called backupfs, which meets my need beautifully to archive the daily state of every file.

According to the current directories on my machine, I’ve written 68 different CWEB programs so far this year. There were about 100 in 2007, 90 in 2006, 100 in 2005, 90 in 2004, etc. Furthermore, CWEB has an extremely convenient "change file" mechanism, with which I can rapidly create multiple versions and variations on a theme; so far in 2008 I’ve made 73 variations on those 68 themes. (Some of the variations are quite short, only a few bytes; others are 5KB or more. Some of the CWEB programs are quite substantial, like the 55-page BDD package that I completed in January.) Thus, you can see how important literate programming is in my life.

I currently use Ubuntu Linux, on a standalone laptop—it has no Internet connection. I occasionally carry flash memory drives between this machine and the Macs that I use for network surfing and graphics; but I trust my family jewels only to Linux. Incidentally, with Linux I much prefer the keyboard focus that I can get with classic FVWM to the GNOME and KDE environments that other people seem to like better. To each his own.

Andrew: You state in the preface of Fascicle 0 of Volume 4 of TAOCP that Volume 4 surely will comprise three volumes and possibly more. It’s clear from the text that you’re really enjoying writing on this topic. Given that, what is your confidence in the note posted on the TAOCP website that Volume 5 will see light of day by 2015?

Donald: If you check the Wayback Machine for previous incarnations of that web page, you will see that the number 2015 has not been constant.

You’re certainly correct that I’m having a ball writing up this material, because I keep running into fascinating facts that simply can’t be left out—even though more than half of my notes don’t make the final cut.

Precise time estimates are impossible, because I can’t tell until getting deep into each section how much of the stuff in my files is going to be really fundamental and how much of it is going to be irrelevant to my book or too advanced. A lot of the recent literature is academic one-upmanship of limited interest to me; authors these days often introduce arcane methods that outperform the simpler techniques only when the problem size exceeds the number of protons in the universe. Such algorithms could never be important in a real computer application. I read hundreds of such papers to see if they might contain nuggets for programmers, but most of them wind up getting short shrift.

From a scheduling standpoint, all I know at present is that I must someday digest a huge amount of material that I’ve been collecting and filing for 45 years. I gain important time by working in batch mode: I don’t read a paper in depth until I can deal with dozens of others on the same topic during the same week. When I finally am ready to read what has been collected about a topic, I might find out that I can zoom ahead because most of it is eminently forgettable for my purposes. On the other hand, I might discover that it’s fundamental and deserves weeks of study; then I’d have to edit my website and push that number 2015 closer to infinity.

Andrew: In late 2006, you were diagnosed with prostate cancer. How is your health today?

Donald: Naturally, the cancer will be a serious concern. I have superb doctors. At the moment I feel as healthy as ever, modulo being 70 years old. Words flow freely as I write TAOCP and as I write the literate programs that precede drafts of TAOCP. I wake up in the morning with ideas that please me, and some of those ideas actually please me also later in the day when I’ve entered them into my computer.

On the other hand, I willingly put myself in God’s hands with respect to how much more I’ll be able to do before cancer or heart disease or senility or whatever strikes. If I should unexpectedly die tomorrow, I’ll have no reason to complain, because my life has been incredibly blessed. Conversely, as long as I’m able to write about computer science, I intend to do my best to organize and expound upon the tens of thousands of technical papers that I’ve collected and made notes on since 1962.

Andrew: On your website, you mention that the Peoples Archive recently made a series of videos in which you reflect on your past life. In segment 93, "Advice to Young People," you advise that people shouldn’t do something simply because it’s trendy. As we know all too well, software development is as subject to fads as any other discipline. Can you give some examples that are currently in vogue, which developers shouldn’t adopt simply because they’re currently popular or because that’s the way they’re currently done? Would you care to identify important examples of this outside of software development?

Donald: Hmm. That question is almost contradictory, because I’m basically advising young people to listen to themselves rather than to others, and I’m one of the others. Almost every biography of every person whom you would like to emulate will say that he or she did many things against the "conventional wisdom" of the day.

Still, I hate to duck your questions even though I also hate to offend other people’s sensibilities—given that software methodology has always been akin to religion. With the caveat that there’s no reason anybody should care about the opinions of a computer scientist/mathematician like me regarding software development, let me just say that almost everything I’ve ever heard associated with the term "extreme programming" sounds like exactly the wrong way to go...with one exception. The exception is the idea of working in teams and reading each other’s code. That idea is crucial, and it might even mask out all the terrible aspects of extreme programming that alarm me.

I also must confess to a strong bias against the fashion for reusable code. To me, "re-editable code" is much, much better than an untouchable black box or toolkit. I could go on and on about this. If you’re totally convinced that reusable code is wonderful, I probably won’t be able to sway you anyway, but you’ll never convince me that reusable code isn’t mostly a menace.

Here’s a question that you may well have meant to ask: Why is the new book called Volume 4 Fascicle 0, instead of Volume 4 Fascicle 1? The answer is that computer programmers will understand that I wasn’t ready to begin writing Volume 4 of TAOCP at its true beginning point, because we know that the initialization of a program can’t be written until the program itself takes shape. So I started in 2005 with Volume 4 Fascicle 2, after which came Fascicles 3 and 4. (Think of Star Wars, which began with Episode 4.)

[Apr 24, 2008] Xcoral 3.47  by Lionel Fournigault

About: Xcoral is a multi-window mouse-based text editor for Unix/X11 with syntax highlighting and auto-indentation. A built-in browser enables you to navigate through C functions, C++ and Java classes, methods, files, and attributes. This browser is very fast and self-updates automatically after file modifications. An ANSI C Interpreter (Smac) is also built-in to dynamically extend the editor's facilities (with user functions, keybindings, modes, etc).

Changes: Bugfixes.

[Feb 4, 2008] Sunifdef 3.1.3 (Stable) by Mike Kinghan

About: Sunifdef is a command line tool for eliminating superfluous preprocessor clutter from C and C++ source files. It is a more powerful successor to the FreeBSD 'unifdef' tool. Sunifdef is most useful to developers of constantly evolving products with large code bases, where preprocessor conditionals are used to configure the feature sets, APIs or implementations of different releases. In these environments, the code base steadily accumulates #ifdef-pollution as transient configuration options become obsolete. Sunifdef can largely automate the recurrent task of purging redundant #if logic from the code.

Changes: Six bugs are fixed in this release. Five of these fixes tackle longstanding defects of sunifdef's parsing and evaluation of integer constants, a niche that has received little scrutiny since the tool branched from unifdef. This version provides robust parsing of hex, decimal, and octal numerals and arithmetic on them. However, sunifdef still evaluates all integer constants as ints and performs signed integer arithmetic upon them. This falls short of emulating the C preprocessor's arithmetic in limit cases, which is an unfixed defect.

[Feb 4, 2008] Automated Testing Framework 0.4

About: ATF is a collection of libraries and utilities designed to ease unattended application testing in the hands of developers and end users of a specific piece of software. Tests can currently be written in C/C++ or POSIX shell and, contrary to other testing frameworks, ATF tests are installed into the system alongside any other application files. This allows the end user to easily verify that the software behaves correctly on her system. Furthermore, the results of the test suites can be collected into nicely-formatted reports to simplify their visualization and analysis.

Changes: This release adds preliminary documentation on the C++ and shell interfaces to write tests, mainly directed to developers wishing to adopt ATF. It adds a way to specify required architectures and machines for given tests through the require. arch and require.machine properties; if the platform running the tests does not fulfill the requirements, the tests are simply skipped. It adds the ability to limit the maximum time a test case can last through the timeout property, killing tests that get stalled. There are many portability fixes, especially to SunOS, and small improvements all around.

[Nov 19, 2007] freshmeat.net Project details for Simplified Wrapper and Interface Generator

SWIG is a software development tool that connects programs written in C and C++ with a variety of high-level programming languages. SWIG is primarily used with common scripting languages such as Perl, PHP, Python, Tcl/Tk, and Ruby, however the list of supported languages also includes non-scripting languages such as C#, Common Lisp (CLISP, Allegro CL, UFFI), Java, Modula-3, OCAML, and R. Also several interpreted and compiled Scheme implementations (Guile, MzScheme, Chicken) are supported. SWIG is most commonly used to create high-level interpreted or compiled programming environments, user interfaces, and as a tool for testing and prototyping C/C++ software. SWIG can also export its parse tree in the form of XML and Lisp s-expressions.

Release focus: Minor feature enhancements

Changes:
shared_ptr support was added for Java and C#. STL support for Ruby was enhanced. Windows support for R was added. A long-standing memory leak in the PHP module was fixed. Numerous fixes and minor enhancements were made for Allegrocl, C#, cffi, Chicken, Guile, Java, Lua, Ocaml, Perl, PHP, Python, Ruby, and Tcl. Warning support was improved.

[Feb 20, 2007] Dakshina`s Blog Weblog

Getting the output of a shell command from a C program using popen

 Sometimes its necessary to access the output of a shell command (more than just the return value) in a C program. One way could be to redirect it to a file and then access it .The other would be by using the popen function.

#include<stdio.h>
main(){
  char  cmd[80];
  FILE *fptr;
  char out[256];
  int ret;
  strcpy(cmd,"ls -l");
  fptr = popen(cmd, "r");
  while(1){
        fgets(out, 256, fptr);
        if(feof(fptr)) break;
        puts(out);
  }
 ret = pclose(fptr);
}

/* Noted tested with S10 gcc only ..*/

[Jan 15, 2007] Splint Home Page

Splint is a tool for statically checking C programs for security vulnerabilities and coding mistakes. With minimal effort, Splint can be used as a better lint. If additional effort is invested adding annotations to programs, Splint can perform stronger checking than can be done by any standard lint.

[Nov 26, 2006] Dru’s Blog » Error Handling - Error Codes, Exceptions and Beyond

[Oct 29, 2006] freshmeat.net Project details for doxygen

doxygen 1.5.1  by Dimitri van Heesch - Sun, Oct 29th 2006 11:00 PDT   About: Doxygen is a cross-platform, JavaDoc-like documentation system for C++, C, Objective-C, C#, Java, IDL, Python, and PHP. Doxygen can be used to generate an on-line class browser (in HTML) and/or an off-line reference manual (in LaTeX or RTF) from a set of source files. Doxygen can also be configured to extract the code-structure from undocumented source files. This includes dependency graphs, class diagrams and hyperlinked source code. This type of information can be very useful to quickly find your way in large source distributions. Changes: This release fixes a number of bugs that could cause it to crash under certain conditions or produce invalid output.

[Oct 4, 2006] C Programming Tutorial Make and Makefiles

Make allows a programmer to easily keep track of a project by maintaining current versions of their programs from separate sources. Make can automate various tasks for you, not only compiling proper branch of source code from the project tree, but helping you automate other tasks, such as cleaning directories, organizing output, and even debugging.

[Sept 27, 2006] Stevey's Blog Rants Get Famous By Not Programming

I agree with your ramblings, although by chance I happen to have one counter-example - John Carmack of id Software. The first Quake really was an amazing technical achievement (real-time texture-mapped 3D graphics done in software that looked good on a Pentium 75?!?). And if you look at the source code (which you can download for free), it's some of the prettiest, easy-to-follow C code I've ever seen. And aside from a few interviews, Carmack hasn't written smack.

Brennen Bearnes said...

Re: Carmack, I think Quake and its relatives fall neatly into the category of frameworks or environments. Remember the ecosystem of Quake extensions, mods, etc.?

[Sept 9, 2006] Errors errno in UNIX programs

Error reporting in C programs

C is the most commonly used programming language on UNIX platforms. Despite the popularity of other languages on UNIX (such as Java™, C++, Python, or Perl), all of the application programming interfaces (APIs) of systems have been created for C. The standard C library, part of every C compiler suite, is the foundation upon which UNIX standards, such as Portable Operating System Interface (POSIX) and the Single UNIX Specification, were created.

When C and UNIX were developed in the early 1970s, the concept of exceptions, which interrupt the flow of an application when some condition occurs, was fairly new or non-existent. The libraries had to use other conventions for reporting errors.

While you're pouring over the C library, or almost any other UNIX library, you'll discover two common ways of reporting failures:

• The function returns an error or success code; if it's an error code, the code itself can be used to figure out what went wrong.
• The function returns a specific value (or range of values) to indicate an error, and the global variable errno is set to indicate the cause of the problem.

The errno global variable (or, more accurately, symbol, since on systems with a thread-safe C library, errno is actually a function or macro that ensures each thread has its own errno) is defined in the <errno.h> system header, along with all of its possible values defined as standard constants.

Many of the functions in the first category actually return one of the standard errno codes, but it's impossible to tell how a function behaves and what it returns without checking the Returns section of the manual page. If you're lucky, the function's man page lists all of its possible return values and what they mean in the context of this particular function. Third party libraries often have a single convention that's followed by all of the functions in the library but, again, you'll have to check the library's documentation before making any assumptions.

Let's take a quick look at some code demonstrating errno and a couple of functions that you can use to transform that error code into something more human-readable.

[Feb 14, 2006] Free Microsoft compilers

• Get a Free Copy of Visual Studio 2005 Express Editions
  Download a copy of Visual Studio 2005 Express Editions today – easy to use tools for the hobbyist, novice and student developer.  
• Visual C++ Toolkit 2003 The Microsoft Visual C++ Toolkit 2003 includes the core tools developers need to compile and link C++-based applications for Windows and the .NET Common Language Runtime – compiler, linker, libraries, and sample code.

[Nov 9, 2005] 10 Things I Hate About (UNIX -- a primitive and misguided view on C; The main value of thier peace is that it contains most of  the typical arguments that people who as no clue in software engineering attack the language. The author does not  understand that for higher level language TCL or similar scripting languages should be used along not instead of C. 

Making Wrong Code Look Wrong - Joel on Software the main problem with C critics is not the C is perfect (it is far from being perfect), but that critics are ignorant. Joel rehashes old C warts without real understanding of solutions available. For example indent is one of the simplest solutions to "deceptive nesting" problem in C. BTW the problem was present even in languages with better, more flexible code blocks like PL/1 BTW PL/1 permits label on each closing bracket in order to match the opening bracket; it also permit multiple block closure with a singled labeled bracket like

a: begin;  ... begin;  ... begin ... end a; /* end a closes all 3 blocks */

Anyway here is his rant:

...As you get more proficient at writing code in a particular environment, you start to learn to see other things. Things that may be perfectly legal and perfectly OK according to the coding convention, but which make you worry.

For example, in C:

char* dest, src;

This is legal code; it may conform to your coding convention, and it may even be what was intended, but when you’ve had enough experience writing C code, you’ll notice that this declares dest as a char pointer while declaring src as merely a char, and even if this might be what you wanted, it probably isn’t. That code smells a little bit dirty.

Even more subtle:

if (i != 0)
    foo(i);

In this case the code is 100% correct; it conforms to most coding conventions and there’s nothing wrong with it, but the fact that the single-statement body of the if statement is not enclosed in braces may be bugging you, because you might be thinking in the back of your head, gosh, somebody might insert another line of code there

if (i != 0)
    bar(i);
    foo(i);

… and forget to add the braces, and thus accidentally make foo(i)unconditional! So when you see blocks of code that aren’t in braces, you might sense just a tiny, wee, soupçon of uncleanliness which makes you uneasy.

OK, so far I’ve mentioned three levels of achievement as a programmer:

1. You don’t know clean from unclean.
2. You have a superficial idea of cleanliness, mostly at the level of conformance to coding conventions.
3. You start to smell subtle hints of uncleanliness beneath the surface and they bug you enough to reach out and fix the code.

There’s an even higher level, though, which is what I really want to talk about:

4. You deliberately architect your code in such a way that your nose for uncleanliness makes your code more likely to be correct.

This is the real art: making robust code by literally inventing conventions that make errors stand out on the screen.

So now I’ll walk you through a little example, and then I’ll show you a general rule you can use for inventing these code-robustness conventions, and in the end it will lead to a defense of a certain type of Hungarian Notation, probably not the type that makes people carsick, though, and a criticism of exceptions in certain circumstances, though probably not the kind of circumstances you find yourself in most of the time.

But if you’re so convinced that Hungarian Notation is a Bad Thing and that exceptions are the best invention since the chocolate milkshake and you don’t even want to hear any other opinions, well, head on over to Rory’s and read the excellent comix instead; you probably won’t be missing much here anyway; in fact in a minute I’m going to have actual code samples which are likely to put you to sleep even before they get a chance to make you angry. Yep. I think the plan will be to lull you almost completely to sleep and then to sneak the Hungarian=good, Exceptions=bad thing on you when you’re sleepy and not really putting up much of a fight.

An Example

Right. On with the example. Let’s pretend that you’re building some kind of a web-based application, since those seem to be all the rage with the kids these days.

Now, there’s a security vulnerability called the Cross Site Scripting Vulnerability, a.k.a. XSS. I won’t go into the details here: all you have to know is that when you build a web application you have to be careful never to repeat back any strings that the user types into forms.

So for example if you have a web page that says “What is your name?” with an edit box and then submitting that page takes you to another page that says, Hello, Elmer! (assuming the user’s name is Elmer), well, that’s a security vulnerability, because the user could type in all kinds of weird HTML and JavaScript instead of “Elmer” and their weird JavaScript could do narsty things, and now those narsty things appear to come from you, so for example they can read cookies that you put there and forward them on to Dr. Evil’s evil site.

Let’s put it in pseudocode. Imagine that

s = Request("name")

reads input (a POST argument) from the HTML form. If you ever write this code:

Write "Hello, " & Request("name")

your site is already vulnerable to XSS attacks. That’s all it takes.

Instead you have to encode it before you copy it back into the HTML. Encoding it means replacing " with &quot;, replacing > with &gt;, and so forth. So

Write "Hello, " & Encode(Request("name"))

is perfectly safe.

All strings that originate from the user are unsafe. Any unsafe string must not be output without encoding it.

Let’s try to come up with a coding convention that will ensure that if you ever make this mistake, the code will just look wrong. If wrong code, at least, looks wrong, then it has a fighting chance of getting caught by someone working on that code or reviewing that code.

V IDE

V IDE works with GNU g++, Borland C++ 5.5 and Java and runs on Windows and Linux. It includes a syntax highlighting editor for C/C++, Java, Perl, Fortran, TeX and HTML. It has a built-in code beautifier, macro support, ctags support, project manager, integrated support for the V applications generator and icon editor, integrated support for the GNU gdb and Sun's jdb (for Java), etc.

Slashdot Optimizations - Programmer vs. Compiler

Highlight UnMatched Brackets - Capture those unmatched brackets while u r still in insert-mode vim online

Its really irksome when your compiler complains for any unmatched "{" or "(" or "[". With this plugin you can highlight all those unmatched "{" or "("  or  "[" as you type. This helps you to keep track of where the exact closing bracket should come. This plugin also warns you of any extra "}" or ")" or "]" you typed.

Customization:  
   - Specifying Additional Bracket-pairs.
              User can specify additional matching pairs in
                     the global option 'matchpairs', see :help 'matchpairs'
                     For eg: set mps+=<:> (to include <> pair)
                     put the above setting in .vimrc file and restart vim.
                  - To get rid of highlighting when you quit insert
                     mode, add this mapping in your vimrc
                           noremap! <Esc> <Esc>:match NONE<CR>

To test how this plugin works type something like
{
  (     ) [ ]
  ( ( ( ) ) )
}

Happy vimming.

ShowFunc.vim - Creates a list of all tags - functions from a window, all windows or buffers. vim online

This script creates a hyperlink list of all the tags (i.e. functions, subroutines, classes, macros or procedures) from a single buffer, all open windows or buffers and displays them in a dynamically sized cwindow.

Supported File types with Exuberant Ctags version 5.5.4 (and newer):  Asm, Asp, Awk, Beta, C, C++, c#, Cobol, Eiffel, Erlang, Fortran, Java, Javascript, Lisp, Lua, Make, Pascal, Perl, PHP, Python, PL/SQL,  REXX, Ruby, Scheme, Shell, SLang, SML, SQL, Tcl, Vera, Verilog, Vim, YACC......and any user defined (i.e. --regex-lang=) types.

Default Key Mappings:
<F1>    Run scan and open cwindow.
              
To reassign add the following to your .vimrc:
      map  NewKey   <Plug>ShowFunc
      map! NewKey   <Plug>ShowFunc
For example to change the <F1> mapping to <F7>
      map  <F7>   <Plug>ShowFunc
      map! <F7>   <Plug>ShowFunc

ShowFunc Window commands:
c       Close cwindow.
h       Display help dialog.
r        Refresh.
s       Change file sort, results will appear in either alphabetical or file order.  (Default: file order)
t       Change scan type, results will be from either the current file, all open windows or all open buffers.  (Default: all open buffers)   install details Put this file in the vim plugins directory (~/.vim/plugin/) to load it automatically, or load it with :so ShowFunc.vim.

You need Exuberant CTags installed for this function to work.
Website: http://ctags.sourceforge.net/
Source: http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/ctags/ctags-5.5.4.tar.gz
Redhat/Fedora RPM:  http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/ctags/ctags-5.5.4-1.i386.rpm
Debian: apt-get install exuberant-ctags

vimcommander - totalcommander-like two-panel tree file explorer for vim vim online

c.vim - Write C-C++ programs by inserting statements, idioms and comments. vim online

[Jan 2, 2005]  CRefVim - a C-reference manual especially designed for Vim vim online

The intention of this project is to provide a C-reference manual that can be viewed with Vim and accessed from within Vim. The C-reference is a reference, it is NOT a tutorial or a guide on how
to write C-programs. It is a quick reference to the functions and syntax  of the standard C language.

[Jan 2, 2005] C-fold - Automates folding and unfolding C & C++ comments and code blocks. vim online

Automatically folds all blocks (i.e. { } ) in C and C++ and defines a function that performs a command e.g. zo on all folds beginning with text that matches a given pattern.

This allows for the following mappings defined by the plugin:

      z[ - Opens all doxygen-style comments
      z] - Closes all doxygen-style comments
      z{ - Opens all code blocks (i.e. {  })
      z} - Closes all code blocks   install details Extract the archive from your home directory. This will extract the following files:
      .vim/plugins/cfold.vim
      .vim/after/syntax/c.vim

Also requires the folding of Doxygen-style comments. This requires vimscript #5. This can be done easily by adding the 'fold' keyword to the end of the 'doxygenComment' region in the 'doxygen.vim' syntax file:

      syn region doxygenComment start= ... keepend fold

Additional languages can be supported as appropriate (e.g. Java) by copying 'c.vim' and renaming to the syntax file for the language (e.g. java.vim).

Linux Online - The Linux Tips HOWTO Short Tips

I do a lot of C programming in my spare time, and I've taken the time to rig vi to be C friendly. Here's my .exrc:

set autoindent
set shiftwidth=4
set backspace=2
set ruler

What does this do? autoindent causes vi to automatically indent each line following the first one indented, shiftwidth sets the distance of ^T to 4 spaces, backspace sets the backspace mode, and ruler makes it display the line number. Remember, to go to a specific line number, say 20, use:

vi +20 myfile.c

2.18 Using ctags to ease programming.

Most hackers already have ctags on their computers, but don't use it. It can be very handy for editing specific functions. Suppose you have a function, in one of many source files in a directory for a program you're writing, and you want to edit this function for updates. We'll call this function foo(). You don't where it is in the source file, either. This is where ctags comes in handy. When run, ctags produces a file named tags in the current dir, which is a listing of all the functions, which files they're in and where they are in said files. The tags file looks like this:

ActiveIconManager       iconmgr.c       /^void ActiveIconManager(active)$/
AddDefaultBindings      add_window.c    /^AddDefaultBindings ()$/
AddEndResize    resize.c        /^AddEndResize(tmp_win)$/
AddFuncButton   menus.c /^Bool AddFuncButton (num, cont, mods, func, menu, item)$/
AddFuncKey      menus.c /^Bool AddFuncKey (name, cont, mods, func, menu, win_name, action)$/
AddIconManager  iconmgr.c       /^WList *AddIconManager(tmp_win)$/
AddIconRegion   icons.c /^AddIconRegion(geom, grav1, grav2, stepx, stepy)$/
AddStartResize  resize.c        /^AddStartResize(tmp_win, x, y, w, h)$/
AddToClientsList        workmgr.c       /^void AddToClientsList (workspace, client)$/
AddToList       list.c  /^AddToList(list_head, name, ptr)$/

To edit, say AddEndResize() in vim, run:

vim -t AddEndResize

This will bring the appropriate file up in the editor, with the cursor located at the beginning of the function.

 

[Jan 2, 2005] C-editing-with-VIM-HOWTO. See also Ctags code browsing framework

3.1. ctags

A Tag is a sort of placeholder. Tags are very useful in understanding and
editing C. Tags are a set of book-marks to each function in a C file. Tags
are very useful in jumping to the definition of a function from where it is
called and then jumping back.

Take the following example.


Figure 6. Tags Example

[tags]

Lets say that you are editing the function foo() and you come across the
function bar(). Now, to see what bar() does, one makes uses of Tags. One can
jump to the definition of bar() and then jump back later. If need be, one can
jump to another function called within bar() and back.

To use Tags one must first run the program ctags on all the source files.
This creates a file called tags. This file contains pointers to all the
function definitions and is used by VIM to take you to the function
definition.

The actual keystrokes for jumping to and fro are CTRL-] and CTRL-T. By
hitting CTRL-] in foo() at the place where bar() is called, takes the cursor
to the beginning of bar(). One can jump back from bar() to foo() by just
hitting CTRL-T.

ctags are called by
            $ ctags options file(s)                                         
                                                                            

To make a tags file from all the *.c files in the current directory all one
needs to say is
            $ ctags *.c                                                     
                                                                            

In case of a source tree which contains C files in different sub directories,
one can call ctags in the root directory of the source tree with the -R
option and a tags file containing Tags to all functions in the source tree
will be created. For Example.
            $ ctags -R *.c                                                  
                                                                            

There are many other options to use with ctags. These options are explained
in the man file for ctags.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------

3.2. marks

Marks are place-holders like Tags. However, marks can be set at any point in
a file and is not limited to only functions, enums etc.. Plus marks have be
set manually by the user.

By setting a mark there is no visible indication of the same. A mark is just
a position in a file which is remembered by VIM. Consider the following code


Figure 7. The marks example

[marks]

Suppose you are editing the line x++; and you want to come back to that line
after editing some other line. You can set a mark on that line with the
keystroke m' and come back to the same line later by hitting ''.

VIM allows you to set more than one mark. These marks are stored in registers
a-z, A-Z and 1-0. To set a mark and store the same in a register say j, all
one has to hit is mj. To go back to the mark one has to hit 'j.

Multiple marks are really useful in going back and fro within a piece of
code. Taking the same example, one might want one mark at x++; and another at
y=x; and jump between them or to any other place and then jump back.

Marks can span across files. To use such marks one has to use upper-case
registers i.e. A-Z. Lower-case registers are used only within files and do
not span files. That's to say, if you were to set a mark in a file foo.c in
register "a" and then move to another file and hit 'a, the cursor will not
jump back to the previous location. If you want a mark which will take you to
a different file then you will need to use an upper-case register. For
example, use mA instead of ma. I'll talk about editing multiple files in a
later section.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------

3.3. gd keystroke

Consider the following piece of code.


Figure 8. The third example

[gd]

For some reason you've forgotten what y and z are and want to go to their
declaration double quick. One way of doing this is by searching backwards for
y or z. VIM offers a simpler and quicker solution. The gd keystroke stands
for Goto Declaration. With the cursor on "y" if you hit gd the cursor will
take you to the declaration :- struct Y y;.

A similar keystroke is gD. This takes you to the global declaration of the
variable under the cursor. So if one want to go to the declaration of x, then
all one needs to do is hit gD and the cursor will move to the declaration of
x.
 

Recommended Links

New:

• Open Directory - Computers Programming Languages C
• Yahoo! Computers and InternetProgramming Languages/C and C++
• Programming.c   -  a directory of programming sites. C and C++ are decent. There are also sections for Java, COBOL, Basic, Pascal...
• Coroutines in C: an implementation of Knuth's "coroutines" concept in portable ANSI C, by a similar technique to Duff's device plus some C preprocessor abuse.

Top:

• **** [June 11, 1999] StudyWeb: programming in C  -- a nice collection of education materials with annotations
• **** The Degener C Collection of papers and information on C -- main site in C world. 
  • The Lysator guide to C resources on the Web. A very good site for links on C programming. Highly recommended...
• Programmers Heaven - C C++ Zone - CC++ Links -- good
• C.html -- European page; many useful links. Some unique.
• C language internet resources
• Douglass Mauro's 'C' Programming Links
• Programming in C and C++ (Cprogramming.com) -- decent
• The C Coders Home Page   -- good collection of links. See also The C Coders Home Page
• The C programmer's pages
• J. Blustein's C Programming Language Resources
  •   If you want to learn C -- Advice I would give to someone who wanted to learn to program in C.
  • Notes about gcc -- some advice for C programmers using the GNU C compiler
  • In Some Useful Technical Books -- a list of books specifically about C (amongst other great books)
  • Versions of the New Testament Errata List - lists of corrections to various printings of the second edition of Kernighan and Ritchie's The C Programming Language
  • Annotations on K&R II -- many notes and clarifications to help you when reading the second edition of Kernighan and Ritchie's The C Programming Language
  • How To Debug C -- Versions: PostScript® and HTML versions of slides I created for a lecture I gave about debugging C programs in 1994
  • In Debugging Tips -- some advice specifically for C programmers
  • Frequent Mistakes in C Programs -- List of common mistakes made by undergrad programmers at UWO. Based on a list of marking codes used in the CompSci department.
  • An Example of Data Encapsulation in C -- a work-in-progress about how you can program in C

Other:

• C/C++ Tools and Their Producers
• Association of C and C++ Users
• Codepage 2.2
• The seebs C Page
• C Language Programming Resources
• Technion C-C++ Programming References -- outdated (1997)
• La página del C - The C Page

See also

• Tcl/Tk
• Algorithms
• Debugging
• C++
• Assembler

Bookshelf

• Tcl  -- is much more interesting to use TCL andC then C++. I feel that to certain extent C++ is a wrong answer to extending C...
• C++ books
• Compilers and compiler tools
• Algorithms

FAQs

• [alt.comp.lang.learn.c-c++] - FAQ
• comp.lang.c Frequently Asked Questions
• C FAQ By Steve Summit
• Infrequently Asked Questions in comp.lang.c
• Unix Programming Frequently Asked Questions - Table of Contents
• ANSI  C Rationale

References

• A Dictionary of ANSI Standard C Function Definitions
• ISO-IEC JTC1-SC22-WG14 N794
• C Language Reference Manual - An online and searchable version of C Language Reference Manual.
• [July 14, 1999] C VM-ESA Language Reference CONTENTS via IBM BookManager BookServer
• www.c9x.org
• Dinkumware C/C++ reference Developed by P.J. Plauger
• Selected Help on the C Programming Language
• Home of JTC1/SC22/WG14 - Home of the C Standard group, C9X, etc.
• C Programming Reference (gator.net) Introduction.
• Tables of names and headers for ISO C and POSIX
• Changes between C89 and C9X
• The GNU C Library - Table of Contents
• Recommended C Style and Coding Standards
• C Reference Material
• comp.lang.c FAQ
• Kernel coding guidelines (as found in /usr/src/linux.)
  • Object-oriented programming in C

  Other Languages

K&R

• Annotations on K&R II
• Versions of the New Testament Errata List

Standard Library

• LG series of articles
  • [May 15, 1999] The Standard C Library for Linux Part 6  -- one can find other parts from this link
  • The Standard C Library for Linux Part 5
  • The Standard C Library for Linux Part.1 <stdio/h> Issue 24
• The ANSI C Standard Library
• The C Standard Library
•  

Code Examples / Snippets

• The SNIPPETS collection of C/C++ code by Bob Stout.
• KarLand International   Sourcesite
• SNIP9510.ZIP
• C Users Journal archive
• Favorite Source Code Links   --C/C++  Journal. Very good
• Directory of publanguages CPublib
• Source Code Archive C/C++ Journal
• C/C++ [Mindinfo] -- Video Games with Source Code
• Source code to Steven's UNIX Network Programming

MS Visual C

 The best way to buy is to by one of the books with CD   This way you can get Visual C++ v.6.0 Teaching Edition for less than $50

• Yahoo! Visual C++

• Microsoft Visual C++ Home Page

• Visual C++ Resources

• MFC Faq

Turbo C/Borland C

The cheapest way to buy compiler is to buy one of the  books with compiler on CD  

• Turbo C Tutor

• Turbo C++ Suite  just $69.  For Borland 3.0 I also saw $10 offer with download from the net

• Yahoo! Borland C++

• Borland C++

EiC

 EiC  -- EiC is a freely available C language interpreter in both source and binary form. EiC allows you to write C programs, and then "execute" them as if they were a script (like a Perl script or a shell script). You can even embed EiC in your own programs, allowing your application to have a "scripting" language that is syntactically equivalent to C. It is also possible to let an EiC "script" call compiled library code and for compiled code to make callbacks to EiC user defined functions.

• License: Artistic
• Description: EiC is a free, pointer-safe, bytecode modern C interpreter which has several modes of operation: interactive mode via immediate statements, non-interactive mode, scripting mode for running its own shell scripts and is embeddable. Because each mode uses the C programming language, it provides a seamless way of moving from one programming task to another. It has been ported to most System V-ish flavors of Unix, WIN32 and BSD.

[ Jul 8, 2000] Linux Magazine: EiC: I Can C Clearly NOW

"Edmond Breen's EiC (Embeddable/Extensible Interactive C) is an open source program that provides one of the most complete and well-designed language interpreters we've ever seen."

Optimization of code

• Advanced Compiler Use and Efficiency Hints
• News Need Not Be Slow -- A case study in how to optimize code.

C critique

Programming Language Critiques -- collection of papers. Not maintained

The Case Against C, P. J. Moylam, Technical Report EE9240, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, The University of Newcastle, July 1992. (see also Moylan The case against C.). The author raise some interesting points, but generally he does not understand that the flexibility and quality of implementation are an integral part of the quality of the language and that efficiency still matters in libraries and other products. Pascal was nicw inroductory programming language, but really horrible system programming language because of this fundamentalist typing. Modula is an improvement, but still it might be that Wirth was barking to the wrong tree ;-).  His critique of pointers is simply naive (Goto of data structures ;-)

It is not my intention in this note to debate the relative merits of procedural (e.g. Pascal or C), functional (e.g. Lisp), and declarative languages (e.g. Prolog). That is a separate issue. My intention, rather, is to urge people using a procedural language to give preference to high-level languages.

In what follows, I shall be using Modula-2 as an example of a modern programming language. This is simply because it is a language about which I can talk intelligently. I am not suggesting that Modula-2 is perfect; but it at least serves to illustrate that there are languages which do not have the failings of C.

Why C remains popular

With advances in compiler technology, the original motivation for designing medium-level languages - namely, object code efficiency - has largely disappeared. Most other machine-oriented languages which appeared at about the same time as C are now considered to be obsolete. Why, then, has C survived?

There is of course a belief that C is more appealing to the "macho" side of programmers, who enjoy the challenge of struggling with obscure bugs and of finding obscure and tricky ways of doing things.

The conciseness of C code is also a popular feature. C programmers seem to feel that being able to write a statement like

**p++^=q++=*r---s 

is a major argument in favour of using C, since it saves keystrokes. A cynic might suggest that the saving will be offset by the need for additional comments, but a glance at some typical C programs will show that comments are also considered to be a waste of keystrokes, even among so-called professional programmers.

... ... ...

Another important factor is that initial program development is perceived to be faster in C than in a more structured language. (I don't agree with this belief, and will return later to this point.) The general perception is that a lot of forward planning is necessary in a language like Modula-2, whereas with C one can sit down and start coding immediately, giving more immediate gratification.

Do these reasons look familiar? Yes, they are almost identical to the arguments which were being trotted out a few years ago in favour of BASIC. Could it be that the current crop of C programmers are the same people who were playing with toy computers as adolescents? We said at the time that using BASIC as a first language would create bad habits which would be very difficult to eradicate. Now we're seeing the evidence of that.

Nothing in this document should be interpreted as a criticism of the original designers of C. I happen to believe that the language was an excellent invention for its time. I am simply suggesting that there have been some advances in the art and science of software design since that time, and that we ought to be taking advantage of them.

I am not so naive as to expect that diatribes such as this will cause the language to die out. Loyalty to a language is very largely an emotional issue which is not subject to rational debate. I would hope, however, that I can convince at least some people to re-think their positions.

I recognise, too, that factors other than the inherent quality of a language can be important. Compiler availability is one such factor. Re-use of existing software is another; it can dictate the continued use of a language even when it is clearly not the best choice on other grounds. (Indeed, I continue to use the language myself for some projects, mainly for this reason.) What we need to guard against, however, is making inappropriate choices through simple inertia.

Unix Programming

• UNIX Signals and Process Groups
• BSD Sockets: A Quick & Dirty Primer
• UNIX Programming
• BSD IPC Tutorial (postscript)
• Interface Technologies On-line Training Center
• Unix Socket Programming

Etc

• Evolvuton: Evolutionary Computation Component
• Free C/C++ Sources for Numerical Computation
• ccmalloc 0.2.1
• PVM: Parallel Virtual Machine
• PVM: Parallel Virtual Machine: A Users' Guide and Tutorial for Networked Parallel Computing
• GraphApp
• PLOT_PS
• DDD - The Data Display Debugger
• egcs-1.0
• Cgraph: PostScript plotting library in C
• DISLIN
• Pentium Compiler Group
• DJGPP
• comp.lang.c Frequently Asked Questions
• Free packages for numerical computation (in C)
• LCC-Win32 Unofficial Page
• Spike Technologies, Inc.: Spike Freeware

• SW_Project -- books + The seebs Programming Bibliography Page

  C-Scene, an e-zine for C and C++ programmers.

  snippets.org, a repository of C code snippets.

  The C Language Online Journal: Resources